Consultant report on how university should fix its admissions system Article

Consultant report on how university should fix its admissions system - Article Example These changes are sook for with hope that they will bring massive improvements to the usability of the admissions webpage. There are several factors and the driving motive behind the undertaking of any activity. This report is however motivated by several concerns about the Trent University website. These are concerns that were raised by the users of this website who were forced to go through a hectic process of applying for a university of their choice through a parent university. This may be a little discouraging to the potential students. Therefore the major objective of this report is to bring to the attention of the authority the concerns raised by various users of the website, to seek address for the concerns raised by the students who apply for admission into variuos faculties within the institution through the university website. The consultant report is also aimed at seeking the address of possible exploring other avenues of altering the user interface so that it can supports of different classes of computer literacy. Another goal of this report is to ultimately help adjust the admissions model through which students seek entrance into the university. This report will cover various areas of concerns especially those that were reported by users and experts to be of great and legitimate concern. This report will therefore include their thoughts on experience with the admissions systems. It will cover the analysis of the system and the major changes that are thought to be great importance to the improvements of this university admissions systems. The report will also incorporate the recommended adjustments to be made to the website as raised by the users. this report will also cover the duration within which the implemention is to be undertaken. The implemetation of this report should be undertaken during the closure period of the university to avoid interruption of the normal

Development Finance and Funding Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Development Finance and Funding - Research Paper Example The city has diversified from office use; for instance, hotels and department stores have been opened (Adair and Norman 2005, p. 255). This study examines the parameters influencing the form and function of office buildings in the City of London and what effects are brought in terms of location decisions of businesses. Developments are underway, for instance, the Canary Wharf scheme which is believed to slow the demand that exists from within and outside the UK for high-quality office buildings and at a lower cost. In 1980s financial instruments were introduced to fund office developments as there was a high demand for new office space. The supply had been restricted by government policy and planning controls introduced in the previous years (Blackwell 2005). This brought about pressure for a realistic and flexible planning framework for office improvement. Richard (1973, p. 30) describes that Information Technology influenced the design and internal configuration of buildings needed. Competitiveness of financial centers depends on the ability to provide the right type of office building for global business. This aims at supporting sustainable growth and providing a high quality of life to citizens. The issue is to make London a low carbon city through the provision of spaces and places to live and work. Investments are targeted through design-led regeneration plans which tend to combine environmental, housing and transport policies as well as land improvement. Design and development of the physical environment is the major issue in encouraging sustainable growth (Atkin 2004). A lease of a commercial building which includes an agreement between the landlord and tenant showing how the building is to be developed, managed and occupied is known as a green lease. These include specific scheduled provisions meant to monitor and improve energy performance thus helping to achieve efficiency  targets such as water, energy, and waste. It also minimizes the environmental impacts of the structure.  

WHAT ASSUMPTIONS DOES THE CONCEPT OF TRANSFER MAKE ABOUT THE Essay

WHAT ASSUMPTIONS DOES THE CONCEPT OF TRANSFER MAKE ABOUT THE DEVELOPMENT OF AND THE APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN AND BETWEEN EDUCATION AND WORKPLACE - Essay Example llenge for vocational educational programmes is therefore to provide effective support to students so that they are able to effectively make the transition from school to the workplace. This assignment deals with the concept of transfer of knowledge and skills from school to the workplace and how effectively an understanding of the transfer process helps to evaluate the degree to which this is being achieved. Existing vocational education curricula are unable to effectively bring about the transfer of students from the context of the school to the workplace. What are the reasons for this and what is the role of knowledge and skills acquisition in the transfer process? These are the questions I will attempt to answer in this essay. This first section discusses the concept of knowledge itself, in order to provide a basis for assessing how far the transfer of such knowledge is supported by vocational education. It will examine the different kinds of knowledge as well as skills and the importance of possessing them in the workplace. Knowledge may be tacit, explicit or situated. While situated knowledge is relevant within a particular work context and may be taught through workplace training and the use of handbooks and manuals tacit knowledge is group knowledge that develops within a specific cultural context and may be more difficult to replicate (Guile and Young 2003). Guile ([2002] citing Drucker [1993]) mentions that some authors view knowledge as an embrained phenomenon, for example, it exists either as a product of someone’s mental abilities or as data that may be found on websites, therefore innovation in such an instance will involve transfer of skill and expertise from one section of an organization to another. Other authors such as Noneka and Takeuchi ([1995] as cited by Guile [2002]) have suggested that the development of innovation in business is dependent upon the extent to which the tacit knowledge possessed by the firm is successfully exploited,

To what extent is children's well-being a priority in modern western Essay

To what extent is children's well-being a priority in modern western societies - Essay Example Threats to children’s well-being in the US Childhood obesity To date, many nutrition and behavior-based interventions have been made both within the home and the school but have achieved very little, if any, success in preventing the overweight or obesity in children. Presently, children in the US experience sobering rates of obesity. â€Å"In 2009–2010, 16.9% of U.S. children and adolescents were obese† (Ogden et al., 2012, p. 2). The obese children in the US face different kinds of health complications including heart disease in the very early years of their life. Causes of childhood obesity in the US The main factors linked with the increased risk of obesity in children particularly in the stage of infancy include but are not limited to excessive weight gain in women during pregnancy, smoking during pregnancy, lesser duration of breast-feeding, and lesser than required sleep of the children during infancy. These exposures are the major risk factors to children ’s well-being in the US because they occur during the early stages of development of children and thus regulate the energy balance in them in the long run. These factors specifically influence the hypothalamic circuits’ development which regulates the weight, the endocrine pancreatic function, changes in the lean body mass’s proportion to the fat body mass, and also several other metabolic programming cycles. In light of the aforementioned factors of risk of increased tendency of the children to become overweight or obese, programs or campaigns meant to prevent obesity in the children should specifically influence the earliest stages of development of the children so that the children develop right habits right from the very start of their life and can easily sustain them during the subsequent stages of development. The vulnerability of the children in the US to obesity can be reduced by designing interventions that help reduce excessive gain of weight as well a s smoking during the pregnancy in women, increase the breast-feeding’s duration for the children, and provide the children with more sleep in the stage of infancy. Programs to ensure children’s well-being in the US The Let’s Move Campaign In the US, children’s wellbeing as always been a priority, yet objective measures could not be taken since the efforts made have largely been experiments that have not yielded very fruitful results. However, the present government of the US has taken the issue of childhood wellbeing quite seriously and some very effective measures have been taken in this regard. For example, one of the campaigns for the prevention of childhood obesity have been started by the First Lady Michelle Obama on 9 February 2010 with the name â€Å"Let’s Move† (letsmove.gov, n.d.). The Let’s Move campaign proposes several practicable measures against the sedentary lifestyle of all communities in the US in general and the chil dren and especially the infants in particular since a considerable population of children in the US become obese right from the first two years of their life and accordingly, all complexities and health risks of obesity in children ensue. The main antiobesity strategies of the Let’s Move campaign are directed at empowering the consumers of the food products as well as the parents. To achieve

Rhetoric & Stereotypes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Rhetoric & Stereotypes - Essay Example †¨The language and rhetoric that is used to reinforce the stereotype of each group will be described. It will be examined if there some â€Å"truth† to stereotypes of these groups (and others, as well)? †¨Finally, there will be an in-depth self-appraisal about what this writer has learned based on this. The following are stereotypes generated by the writer which are not necessarily true but are commonly associated with the following respective groups. Generally, politicians have the reputation for being men who are usually lawyers, liars, crooked, long-winded, all talk and no action, cheaters, stealers, dishonest, powerful, power-hungry, ego-centric, self-centered, and egomaniacal. Tattooed persons may have the reputation of being the following: cheap; pro basketball players; losers; people who smoke; trailer trash; bikers; biker babes; self-cutters; people with low self-esteem; exhibitionists; people of low social class or socioeconomic status; people from the ghetto or who exalt ghetto life or the ghetto lifestyle; following their cultural norms; getting tattoos for fun; being sailors; being punks; being fans of â€Å"emo† music; and drunks. Feminists may be stereotyped as being annoying, loud, pushy, lesbians, dykes, whiny, single, organizers, protesters, bra-burners, peo ple who use the title â€Å"Ms.†, independent, ballbreakers, complainers, whistleblowers, strong, strong-minded, stubborn, and well-educated. Senior citizens may be labeled as grumpy, old, leaky, sickly, frail, poor, forgetful, repetitive, wistful, reminiscing, mean, doddering, docile, childlike, dependent, ornery, wise, professorial, people who live in the past, long-winded, toothless, bald or balding, frugal, cheap when it comes to money, hard-of-hearing, blind, sight-impaired, dependent on prescription drugs, unsteady, bad drivers, and people who have decreased mobility. †¨ Not all of

Training And Development Strategy Essay Example for Free

Training And Development Strategy Essay 1.0 Executive summary Training involves has to do with behaviour modification which is implemented in a formal and systematic manner. Organizational training and development needs to be incorporated in Fair Price. The aims and objectives of carrying out training in this store are to minimise absenteeism and equip employees with skills etc. There are various steps that are taken in employee training and development including formulation of training policy. There are poor levels of supervisory skills in this store which can be improved by mentoring and coaching. Training existing and new staff will help Fair Price store to have skilled manpower though it may be costly. Management training should include both men and women with larger percentage being women. Management development of managers in this store will help to improve their skills. There are different models which have been used including Kirkpatrick’s 4 level model. If training and development is well implemented in this store it will solve the existing problems and lead to success. 2.0 Introduction Training involves a behaviour modification which is normally carried out in a formal and systematic manner. It is as a result of planned experience, instruction and education. Training and development plays a big role in achievement of organisational goals. (Brooks, 1999)   Most of these goals are normally long term in nature. Training is part of the strategic framework of organisations.   It produces a comprehensive and coherent plan that helps in developing employees and other stakeholders in organisations. When a business incorporates training and development therein, it acquires a competitive advantage over the other businesses. This is because the intellectual capital in the business is greatly developed. In fact employees in an organisation get an opportunity to improve their skills in their areas of specialization.   This leads to great impacts on the organisation as a whole. There is usually improved team performance when training and development strategies are incorporated in a business. (CIPD 2006) Research shows that such training influences the performance of employees at personal levels. For instance employees are in a position to carry out self evaluation of their performance and implement self corrections where necessary. 2.1Justification Fare Price stores needs to incorporate organisational training and development strategy in its management system. This is because a close evaluation at Fair Price store shows that it requires training and development in many areas. For instance the previous store manager never tried to implement company appraisal scheme in the organisation. (Cherrington, 1994) The employees that continue learning never see the benefit because the management was not acknowledging it.   The previous manager did not seek qualified personnel to carry out the responsibilities therein. This has led to underperformance in this organisation. (DTI 2006)   Employees are given posts and responsibilities that they are not qualified for. The previous manager never considered Investing in People. In fact the supervisors in Fair Price store are not qualified at all. There is a lot of absenteeism in this supermarket. The supervisors therein are not concerned and they are not doing anything about it. The absenteeism is taken in form of sick leave. Even the till operators complain that no one notices their presence. This shows that there have been poor relations between management and employees in this supermarket. In fact even when they do not report to duty, no one notices. This has created a sense of irresponsibility in them. Research shows that when people are not appreciated, they never do their best. They do shoddy work. Employees in Fair Price store are really demoralised.   How can all the managers in an organisation be male only? This is what is happening in Fair Price supermarket. (Fawson, T. 1999) There is no gender equality in the management. All the managers are male despite the fact that most of the employees in this supermarket are women. Women constitute seventy five percent of the two hundred employees in this supermarket. This means that most of the issues affecting the female staff are not adequately addressed. It is only the wearer of the shoe who knows where it pinches most. There is no way that the male managers can adequately address feminine issues.   (Burgoyne, J. 1997)They simply cannot understand because they are not female. Having considered all these factors, I strongly feel that implementing a training and development strategy in this supermarket will be very beneficial both the staff and the organisation at large. 2.2 Performance appraisal management system Performance appraisal is one of the training needs in Fair Price store. This is whereby employees that are best performers are rewarded by the management. 2.3 Succession planning This need to be carried out in Fair Price store and it includes. (Brooks, 1999)There needs to be smooth transition from the old management to the new management in this store. This has not been practiced in Fair Price store. 2.4 Mentoring and coaching Fair Price store needs to put in place mentoring and coaching mechanisms. (Brooks, 1999) Management in this organization needs to mentor employees and also to coach them on various leadership and job skills. This has not been practiced in this store. 2.5 Personal development Management in this store has to consider personal development of employees. This is where they are given training on their professional skills. (Brooks, 1999)This will benefit them. Fringe benefits given to employees help in promoting personal development. All these have not been implemented in Fair Price store. 3.0 Aim and objectives The aim and objectives of carrying out training and development strategy in Fair Price store include: To recruit new staff on merit basis. To help eradicate or minimize absenteeism in Fair Price store.   Ensure gender balance in management. Introduce an Information technology system for checkouts. Implement employee appraisal schemes. To improve leadership and professional skills of employees To enhance behaviour modification among employees 4.0 Steps for employee training and development The following steps will be taken in the training and development strategy in Fair Price store. Formulation of a training policy Identification of training needs in Fair Price store Training plan development Conducting of the training program Training responsibilities Training evaluation 4.1 Formulation of training policy Training policies normally give a guideline on degree of training that should be carried out in an organisation. They direct on the employees that need to be trained. In this stage there is allocation of profits to the training. This has to be done annually. Aims of training are clearly evaluated at this stage. (CIPD 2007)All these information has to be disseminated to the employees and the entire staff in Fair Price store. This will help them to understand that the management is interested in their welfare. This is in relation to career development. Training the employees in Fair price store will greatly influence in goal achievement. In fact the employees’ personal skills will be sharpened and this is very beneficial to Fair Price supermarket in general. The training in Fair Price store can be carried out in two ways. One of them is where it is oriented to actions. The other way relates to performance of the employees. This includes meeting targets. Performance training has to do with competence of employees. (Phillips, J. 1996)This means that they are trained to be more competent in their various responsibilities. When the training is action oriented, the employees in Fair Price are trained to make things happen. For instance they can be trained in customer care skills that will influence many customers to visit and purchase from the store. 4.2 Identification of training needs in Fair Price store When implementing training and development strategy, it is very important to identify the training needs in the organisation. Fair Price store has to identify its various training needs. This will help in realizing what the employees in this store know and what they can do. (CIPD 2007) It will also help in identifying what they need to know such that services in Fair Price store are improved. This is in relation to the goals in Fair Price store. For instance one of the goals is to ensure customer satisfaction in their service provision. The training needs in Fair Price store have to be analyzed at a corporate level. After that the analysis has to be done at the departments in this store. This includes customer care, finance and sales departments. (CIPD 2007)   Later on they need to be analyzed at team levels then finally at individual level. There are various tools that can be used when carrying out this analysis. This includes administering questionnaires to the employees.   This is because employees normally have first hand information concerning what they know and what they need to know. Focus group discussion between management and employees can be used in this store in identifying the training needs. This will really work for this store.   (CIPD 2007)   These discussions should also be done between the management and the departmental heads. This information will really be beneficial to Fair Price store when carrying out their long term and short term goals on training. 4.3 Training plan development Much thought has to be done when developing a training plan. This is in relation to the outcomes of learning program. Fair Price store management has to be keen in examining any changes in behaviour of employees after training is done. Now after identifying training needs then the training program content has to be put in place. After identifying the training objectives, an analysis needs to be done such that this stores’ management knows exactly what to do. .   (CIPD 2006)     All these things have to be put in place so that Fair Price store’s objectives are met. The content will greatly determine how long the training will take place. The length of the training will be influenced by modes of delivering information. For instance lectures may need long time to accomplish all that is required unlike the use of handouts. Training can also be done by the managers by carrying out on job training of the employees in Fair Price store. They can do this by coaching the staff at low levels in Fair Price store. These employees just learn how to do their job under the managers guidance.   They just learn naturally as they interact with other employees and managers. (CIPD 2007)  Ã‚     This is done on a day to day basis. Supervisors and also other senior employees in Fair Price store should go for training which can be done externally and not necessarily internally. They can make good use of consultants who provide these services at a fee. Through this the senior employees will gain skills in leadership and technical areas which they are lacking. 4.4 Conducting the training program In this stage there is monitoring of the courses that were identified during when analysis of training needs was being done. (Parry, S. 1996)This helps in ensuring that all the activities carried out in the training are within the budgets of Fair Price store. Management in this fair Price store should evaluate the training and know whether it is effective or not. 4.5 Training responsibilities Training in Fair Price store should not be carried out on an ad-hoc basis. This is because training will help this store to achieve its corporate goals. This human resource department in Fair Price store should be concerned with all the training and development needs therein. This should not just be done by the human resource department in general but a unit in this department will be more efficient. This unit will carry out coordination of every activity that is related to training and development. This unit will be responsible for evaluating both internal and the external people responsible in facilitating the training. It will also be responsible for planning the training and development activities in Fair Price store. Managers in this store should come to knowledge that it is their responsibility to oversee all the training activities. 4.6 Training evaluation This is very important since it will help to assess how effective the program is. This helps to know whether the objectives set at the planning stage were met or not. (Easterby, 1997) For instance the performance of the employees can be greatly monitored to see whether it has improved or not. In case the objectives are not met then necessary adjustments have to be put in place. These adjustments will help in improving the training so that it is more effective. For instance managers in Fair Price store should evaluate whether the employees’ skills have improved after the training or not. (Parry, S. 1996)Behaviour change in staff should be evaluated concerning absenteeism from work. This stage is should be done thoroughly and stakeholders should be given an opportunity to give the reasons why the objectives were not achieved and factors that contributed. Evaluation should be carried out to whether employee’s supervisory skills have been improved. Evaluation can be carried out in four levels. They include the following; 4.6.1 First level In the first level, there is the measurement of the reaction of the people who participated in the training. They include employees and external trainers. In this stage the degree of satisfaction of participants is evaluated whether it was poor, fair or excellent. (Parry, S. 1996)   In this case employees in Fair Price store can be interviewed by the managers or they have an open forum. Through this managers can know whether the training was effectively carried out or not. 4.6.2 Second level The evaluation is carried out in relation to achievement of objectives. This is to know whether the objectives were attained or not. (Alliger, G. 1989) The objectives in this case were to reduce absenteeism, to ensure behaviour modification in employees and to ensure that employee’s skills are improved. This can be evaluated whether they have been achieved or not. 4.6.3 Third level In this level the degree of behaviour change is evaluated. This is to know whether the employees’ behaviour has improved or not. Mangers in Fair Price store can evaluate behaviour change in the employees by observing their behaviours when at work. (Alliger, 1989) This can be noted down and those that have improved should be acknowledged by the managers.   Those that have not improved in their behaviour can be asked the reasons why and necessary steps taken. 4.6.4 Fourth level The results of the training are evaluated at this level. The costs of the training are evaluated against the benefits achieved. Managers in Fair Price store should evaluate the results of the training needs. (Alliger, 1989)   This can help them to know whether it was worth the initiative or not. The costs that Fair Price as a store incurred should be calculated against the benefits that the store would have achieved. This needs good use of records concerning the expenses that were incurred by the organization in carrying out the entire training. 5.0 Critical evaluation of options to tackle poor level of supervisory skills There are various ways of dealing with poor supervisory skills in Fair Price store. Now having a closer look at the supervisors shows that they are not qualified for the job they are doing. (Parry, 1996)They do not have leadership skills at all and this is clearly seen in the way that they deal with absenteeism. One of the ways of dealing with this is carrying out retrenchment of these under qualified staff. While this will help eliminate untrained staff, it may create a very poor relationship between managers and some employees. Though it is worth it since the store’s structure has to be reorganised. Carrying out organisation al learning for these supervisors can be very expensive for the store. In fact some of them may not understand due to lack of basic knowledge. Instead of retrenching them, they can be demoted to responsibilities that do not require skills like sanitation duties and packing the goods. New staff can be recruited on merit basis to do supervisory work in this store. Mentoring and coaching can be carried out by the managers in this organization. This should be carried out especially in relation to supervisors in this store. This can be done by the managers in this store showing the right examples to the supervisors. Managers can also have coaching sessions with supervisors and this will help improve supervisory skills though its time consuming. 6.0 Women only management training It would not be appropriate to carry out women only management training in Fair Price store in the name of levelling the playing field. (Kaufman, R. 1996)This still would not be gender sensitive. It will still be biased. Rather management training should be carried out for both male and female employees. Women should constitute two thirds of those attending the management training while then men should be a third. This is in relation to the gender ratios of the staff in Fair Price store. This will help in addressing feminine issues affecting the female employees. On the other hand if all the managers are women, the management in this store will not be stable. The male employees will never be comfortable with this. 7.0 Critical evaluation of option of training existing and new staff On opening of the new ‘mega store’ there will be the option of recruiting one hundred and fifty extra staff in various areas of the store. This is a positive venture though it has got its own challenges. Having a large number of employees to manage means having more problems to solve. Management development courses will be beneficial to managers at this stage. One of the challenges that are posed by this venture is in the financial sector. (McNamara, C. 2001)This is because the recruitment process can be very expensive. This is because there are costs that are incurred in advertising vacancies. The entire recruitment process can be quite tedious. There are also other financial implications like paying the salaries of one hundred and fifty extra people. The new employees will have to be recruited on merit basis unlike what initially happened in Fair price store under the previous store manager. Training of existing and new employees can be done with the help of National initiatives which were introduced by the government. The government helps in provision of resource materials in staff training. These resource materials include books in various professions that help the employees in the training. (Hoberman, S. and Mailick, S. 1992)   The government plays a big role in identifying modules that assist organisations such as Fair Price store to carry out training of employees. Fair price store can really benefit from government initiatives where it will be assisted to link up with qualified personnel that can be employed in the new store. This store will greatly benefit by receiving awards and scholarships through the National initiatives introduced by the government. The government offers scholarships and training opportunities that are quite collaborative in nature. Fair Price store can also gain through research that is carried out by the government. It will get a concrete base of knowledge from National Initiatives introduced by the government. 8.0 Management Development effectiveness In management development managers skills are improved. This is usually very beneficial to the organisation and even to the managers. It gives managers knowledge on how to deal with various issues in the organisation. This always plays a great role in the success of the organisation. (Gupta, K. 1999)   In this case managers are given the chance to broaden their reasoning in the business sector while at the same time continuing with their management responsibilities in the organisation. They learn more on new methodologies of handling human as a resource. It helps managers to gain knowledge in managing themselves first. Knowledge is also gained that helps them to manage employees in the organisation. Leadership skills of managers are greatly sharpened by management development. This will be effective for Fair Price store managers basing on the following evaluation models. 8.1 Flashlight Triad Model This model involves use of technology in accomplishment of various tasks. The technology should enable accomplishment of a specific activity. (Alliger, G. 1997) Management development will help managers incorporate appropriate technology in management areas like information technology. 8.2 Connoisseurship Evaluation An expert in the study field estimates how worth the new innovation is. (Alliger, G. 1997)   The threats that exist are clearly shown. Managers will be helped to use this model in their organisation. 8.3 Adversary Evaluation In this model there is a critical look at both sides of the innovation. This includes both the negative and the positive. (Alliger, G. 1997)This is to show whether the innovation is beneficial or not. 8.4 Kirkpatrick’s 4-level model In this model, the managers are helped to evaluate the reaction of employees on training and learning. (Alliger, G. 1997)Changes in behaviour are also noted in evaluation of the training by the managers. 9.0 Conclusion It is important for every business organisation to incorporate a training and development strategy. This helps in modifying employee’s behaviours. Organisational goals are easily achieved when training and development is well implemented. There are various steps in employee training and development. All these steps are important and should be carried out by business organisations. Evaluation will help in knowing whether the set objectives were achieved or not. 10.0 Recommendation Fair Price store has to include training and development strategy in its management. This will help in solving problems that exist in this store such as unskilled personnel, lack of appraisal scheme. This will help in motivating employees and will minimise absenteeism problems. Above all it will lead to the overall success of Fair Price store to the benefit of the stakeholders therein. 11.0 References Alliger, G. (1997): A meta-analysis of the relationship among training criteria. Personnel Psychology, 50, 341-358 Alliger, G. (1989): Kirkpatricks levels of training criteria: Thirty years later. Personnel Psychology, 42, 331-342 Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (2006): Training and development strategy; New York; Sage Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (2007): Creating a Training and Development Strategy; New York; Sage Beard, C. and Wilson, J. (2002): The power of experiential learning: A handbook for trainers and educators. London: Kogan Brooks, H. (1999): Workshops; Designing and facilitating experiential learning; Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Burgoyne, J. (1997): Management learning; Integrating perspectives in theory and practice; London; Sage Cherrington, R. (1994): Pinning down experiential learning. Studies in the education of adults, 26(1) Easterby, S. (1997): Research traditions in management learning; Management learning: Integrating perspectives in theory and practice. London; Sage; pp. 38-53 DTI (2006): National Training and development Strategy; New York; Macmillan Press Fawson, T.   (1999): A study of executive education programs at ATT; Measuring learning and performance. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and Development. Gupta, K. (1999): A Practical Guide to Needs Assessment; San Francisco; Jossey- Bass/Pfeiffer Hoberman, S. and Mailick, S. (1992): Experiential management development; From learning to practice; New York; Quorum Books Kaufman, R. (1996): What works and what doesnt: Evaluation beyond Kirkpatrick. Performance and Instruction, 35(2), 8-12 McNamara, C. (2001): Employee Training and Development: Reasons and Benefits; New York; Macmillan Press Parry, S. (1996): Measuring trainings ROI. Training Development; 49(2), pp. 72-78 Phillips, J. (1996): ROI; The search for best practices. Training Development; 50(5), pp. 42-48

Impact of Arthashastra on Modern Warfare

Impact of Arthashastra on Modern Warfare ARTHASHASTRA AND ITS RELEVANCE IN MODERN WARFARE AND COUNTERINSURGENCY/COUNTERTERRORISM PHILOSOPHY â€Å"In the happiness of his subjects lies the kings happiness; in their welfare his welfare. He shall not consider as good only that which pleases him but treat as beneficial to him whatever pleases his subjects†¦An archer letting off an arrow may or may not kill a single man, but a wise man using his intellect can kill even reaching unto the very womb.† The Arthashastra INTRODUCTION SITUATING THE ARTHASHASTRA Historical Background 1. Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta[1] was the key advisor to and the genius behind the strategy undertaken by the king Chandra Gupta Maurya (317-293 B.C.) who stopped the advance of Alexander the Greats successors and introduced the Golden Age of India.[2] The Mauryan kingdom united and amalgamated the Indian sub-continent into a single entity for the first time, thus creating the concept of Indian nationhood. The Mauryan Empire extended from the Persian border in the West to Burma in the East covered most of peninsular India.[3] The empire lasted 150 years until about 180 BC, after which the empire dissociated[4] into several fragments. Kautilya was the chancellor to Chandra Gupta Maurya, and he composed the Arthashastra to counsel a ruler on how to defeat ones enemies and rule for the general good. The Arthashastra was very influential in ancient India up to the 12th century AD, when it faded from the public eye. The text, however, reappeared in 1904 and was publis hed in English in 1915.[5] 2. Artha[6] of Arthashastra stands for wealth, but it has a much wider significance. As enunciated by Kautilya, wealth of a nation is both the territory of the state and the inhabitants of the state. Thus economics is at the heart of Arthashastra. A healthy economy and loyal subjects can be achieved by having an adequate balance between the treasury of the state and the welfare of the people, was preached by Kautilya. This was to be achieved by maintaining law and order and adequate administrative machinery.[7] Thus the Arthashastra also contains the enforcement of laws (Dandaniti) and the details of the organisation of civil service and duties of state officials.[8] Arthashastra Overview 3. Written about 300 B.C., Kautilyas work was pitched to teach with the various intricacies of governance and politics to the king.[9] Kautilya has covered the subject in depth and offers insights into various spheres of statecraft, war and diplomacy. Kautilya wished his king to become a world conqueror[10] hence his analysis of the types of war, his doctrine of assassination, sowing discord amongst the enemy, use of spies, religion, superstition, along with the use of women to create conflicts in the enemy camp are engrossing and unputdownable.[11] 4. Books of Treatise. The Arthashastra is divided into 15 books, 150 chapters, 180 sections and 6,000 slokas.[12] The books are arranged in a manner that the initial books deal with internal administration and the later books on a states relations with its neighbours. Interestingly, there exists a very prominent mention of the ancient Navy as he has mentioned the ‘superintendent of ships in Book II. He may have foreseen the advantages of a sea borne force and a Navy.[13] 5. Science of Arthashastra. Kautilya believed that a rulers duties included the internal administration of the country, protection of the state from external aggression, maintenance of law and order within the state, and the welfare of the people. New territory had to be acquired by alliance or conquest for the prosperity of the state and also in the political environment existing then, which had many kings, anyone content with his own territory was likely to fall prey to hedgemonistic ambitions of the other. 6. Spectrum of Arthashastra. Kautilya argued that a nation could never achieve prosperity under a foreign ruler; indicating that independence was a pre-requisite for prosperity and economic progress. At the macro level, the Arthashastra covers the entire gamut of human society, the establishment and continuance of a nation state, foreign policy, war, civil law and economics. At the other end of the spectrum, the book delves into the building blocks of a society by clearly defining standardised weights[14], measures and time, values and taxes on commodities[15], metallurgical standards[16], sources of state revenue[17] and a detailed analysis of the composition of an army and forts.[18] 7. National Security. Kautilya insisted that all threats to national security must be eliminated at any cost to the state, while no enemy must be privy to the inner machinations and processes of ones own state â€Å"Like a tortoise, the king (state) shall draw in any limb of his that is exposed.†[19] Internal stability was the harbinger of economic well being. However, to maintain internal and external security, Kautilya proposed a massive network of spies and agents operating within the state and also in surrounding and enemy states. Detailed descriptions of espionage and counter-espionage activities, physical punishments and torture for internal security set this work apart from any other political treatise. 8. The Arthashastra is thus a mixture of both what we applaud today and what we consider to be reprehensible. Kautilya wrote his book about 2300 years ago when extreme forms of governance were commonplace and the primary task of the ruling monarch was primacy of his state and a policy of expansionism. While Kautilya was quite willing to reward those who served the state, he seemed to have an obsession with using the discipline of the laws to make everything in the kingdom ‘just right. In the Arthashastra, everyday life in all its multifarious activities comes in for careful regulation and adjustment, from the ‘cooking pot to the crown.[20] CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Statement of the Problem 9. The aim of this paper is to study the teachings of Arthashastra in order to determine its relevance and yield insights into military strategy and warfare with emphasis on counter insurgency and counter terrorism. Hypothesis 10. The concepts of defence and war as enunciated by Kautilya are as relevant in the 21st century as it was in the 3rd century BC. Justification for the Study 11. The Arthashastra is essentially a treatise on the art of government and specially focuses on aspects of internal administration and foreign policy. It has been translated as â€Å"Science of Politics†, â€Å"Treatise on Polity†[21] or the â€Å"Science of Political Economy†.[22] However, the best description of the word comes from Heinrich Zimmer who translates the word as â€Å"Timeless Laws of Politics, Economy, Diplomacy and War†.[23] 12. Two thousand three hundred years ago, Kautilya compiled the Arthashastra and with it he proved to be a kingmaker as he enabled the inception of the Maurya dynasty. The Arthashastra has endured the test of time and it has since withstood the test of credibility. We will be enriching ourselves if we learn and grasp even a fraction of the wisdom that Kautilya embodied. 13. Our ancient scriptures have been neglected and Western principles and teachings propounded in our literature, including military literature due to ignorance of students and insufficient importance by teachers. 14. Kautilyas treatise enraptures in many ways, the complexity of our current world. The problems that existed then, persist in a more widespread and magnified manner in the contemporary world. The principles of Military strategy followed by Kautilya are also relevant in the contemporary world. 15. Study of his military strategy will throw some light on the in-depth knowledge of warfare in ancient India and will provide important lessons for conventional and unconventional warfare in the modern world, besides enhancing understanding and pride in our country and its thinkers. The lecture by Dr Gopalji Malviya, sparked the inquisitiveness and determination to study the Arthashastra. Scope 16. The scope of this paper is restricted to the study and analysis of the aspects related to warfare as enunciated by Kautilya. The study does not include his precepts on the social, political and economical structure of an ideal state. Though Kautilya has treated foreign policy as an important part of warfare, only brief mention where necessary would be made. The famous Mandala theory[24] has hence been consciously left out. Also the actual battle fighting and formations described in detail have been omitted to maintain focus on strategy. The study will cover the relevance of Arthashastra and its importance for modern warfare, counter insurgency and counter terrorism. 17. Though a sincere effort has been made to cover the relevance, trying to expound on Kautilyas immense wisdom presents a remarkable challenge. Therefore, throughout this dissertation the work of Kautilya is quoted to speak for itself. Methods of Data Collection 18. There are a number of books written on Arthashastra. Though some books are in Sanskrit and some are literal translations, some books are available in college library on the Arthashastra notably by LN Rangarajan, R Shamashastry, MV Krishna Rao and Roger Boeshe. Some data is also available on the internet and journals. A bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the paper. Likely sources include the following:- (a) Books written by eminent authors as mentioned above. (b) Papers submitted by researchers. (c) Information available over the internet. (d) Discussions with teachers and professors of history. Dr Gopalji Malviya was gracious enough to grant some valuable time for a ‘one on one discussion. His encouragement, advice and passion for the subject made the research meaningful. Organisation of the Dissertation 19. The dissertation is organised into six chapters. Chapters one and two deal with introducing the subject and the methodology of the research. It is proposed to study the subject under the following heads:- (a) Chapter III Principles of military strategy in Arthashastra. (b) Chapter IV Relevance in 21st century conventional warfare. (c) Chapter V Relevance in fourth generation warfare. (d) Chapter VI Conclusion. CHAPTER III PRINCIPLES OF MILITARY STRATEGY IN ARTHASHASTRA 20. Kautilya has enunciated many military strategies in the Arthashastra. Most importantly he does not seem to have made much distinction between military strategy and that of statecraft. He believed that warfare is an extension and an integral part of statecraft.[25] He has covered an array of strategies over a vast canvas from the actual fighting and planning, to training and deceit. Some of these will be discussed in this chapter. Planning a Campaign 21. Kautilyas most striking doctrine is his discussion of planning a campaign -â€Å"The activity of one setting out on a campaign deals with the factors to be taken into account before the king (state) decides that it is in the states interest to commence the campaign†.[26] Kautilya brings out the various facets of planning a campaign. He enunciates eight factors which are to be critically considered for determining whether a campaign would end in success, prior to making preparations for war. The factors that he considered for a successful campaign included Power (military, intellectual and morale), place and time, revolts and the rebellion in the rear, the calculation of losses, expenses and gains and the likely dangers of treachery. Few of the factors are discussed below:- (a) Power. According to Kautilya, the most important factor is of power. Power included the military might, and the economic strength of the adversary, and also the intellectual power, and t the ability of the enemy to carry out a objective analysis and not to be swayed by emotion or opinions. He even lists out the order of the three constituents of power to be Intellectual power, Military might and Enthusiasm and morale in the decreasing order of importance. Kautilya says that though the mightier king may be endowed with better war machinery and that he can buy heroic fighters, the Power of good analysis and judgement (which include intelligence and the knowledge of politics the two eyes of the king) are superior to sheer military strength. The operational ‘fFactor of fForce as spelt out in present day warfare encompasses the tangible (personnel, weapons, mobility, fire power and logistics) and the intangible elements (leadership, morale, discipline, training, doctrine and mo tivation).)[27] The human element that is the power of good counsel and intellectual power has been given the highest importance by Kautilya, unlike modern thinkers who give more importance to the military might. The intangible human elements are difficult to quantify and hence tend to tilt the balance if not correctly assessed. Hence to compare two opponents as emphasised inemphasised in the Arthashastra ,Arthashastra, their power in all aspects needs to be compared.[28] Kautilya gives least importance to morale but adds that ‘Tthe night before the battle is to be used for preparing for battle and building up the morale[29] of troops.[30] (b) Place/Terrain[31]. The next important factor to be considered is the place andplace and the terrain.[32] Employment of infantry, horses, elephants and chariots have been given the due importance with respect to terrain[33]. He has articulated that the land being used for conflict should be unsuitable for the enemy and suitable for own operations. This terrain is a smaller manifestation of the operational ‘Factor of Space. as given in the present day references on Operational Factors. The present day conventional warfare propagates that the free movement of ones forces and the space available are crucial for success in war. An example of denial of space is the concept of Blockade. Thus the importance of space was evident to Kautilya except the new concept of cyberspace. However his postulate that on each kind of space the king should undertake such works to increase his power[34] is still relevant. (c) Time/Campaigning Season. Kautilya has laid stress on timing[35] and selection of season for an expedition. He recommends that the climate and the time or duration of a campaign (day, night, fortnight, month, season) is of great importance. His concept of space is replicated as he articulates that the time of conflict should be unsuitable for the enemy and suitable for own operations.[36] He also states the various kinds of warfare and weapons to be used in different seasons . ‘An army consisting mostly of elephants should be used in rains or when plenty of water is available, camels and horses may be used in little rain or areas with muddy water.[37] The operational factors in modern warfare give serious consideration to the factor of time. Time has further been divided into preparation time, warning time, reaction time, decision cycle time etc. Durations of the campaign and the interval between two consecutive operations should beare kept short to be maintain a high tempo. This is brought out by Kautilya when he recommends that ‘whenever the king is superior, he shall not waste any time and should proceed against the enemy whenever by doing so the enemy can be weakened or crushed. Due to new technologies the pace of thein present day warfare new technologies are enlarging the area of combat is growing and at the same time compressing the time factor is being compressed. Thus tThe critical evaluation of time, and the various weather parameters and advices such as theand terms for planningfor planning a long, medium and short war as given in the Arthashastra remain relevant even today. (d) Troop Mobilisation. He Kautilya lays down the criterias in great detail which are required for mobilising each kind of troops. like Tthe standing army, is to be chosen if the threat is great and from well trained troops, however the territorial army is to be chosen if the enemy is weak. Tthe militia or is to be mobilised if the enemy is weak and it is only a law and order problem. Ffriendly or allied forces. are to be used when the king and the ally have the same objective. Without any remorse he adds that the jungle tribes should be used when there is a gain to the king, whether they win or lose in fighting the enemy ‘Just as a Chandala stands to benefit when a wild dog fights a wild boar. Combat potential concept in the present day concepts operational art states that combat potential is converted into Combat power by mobilisation of troops and start of conflict.[38] Even Kautilya has rightly emphasised the importance of troops and thus their bearing on the factor of for ce. Kautilya prefers an army of trained Kshatriyas[39] or a large force composed of Sudras and Vaishyas[40]. He was the first Indian statesman to consider the lower castes to fight wars. (e) Other factors. The other factors he discusses in planning include the revolts and the rebellion in the rear, the calculation of losses, expenses and gains and the likely dangers of treachery. Thus Kautilya has also brought out the fact which present day planners also abide by; of not planning or initiating military action without adequate forces and in the presence of unreasonable military or political constraints. Though most planning is valid only till the first contact with the enemy, still a complex almost mathematical analysis of gains and losses was carried out to justify going to war. (f) Power Place Time relation. The relationship of power, place and time to wage a war had various interpretations during that period. However Kautilya has clearly enunciated that though each of these components is important, none is more important than the other and all are interdependent. The fact that Kautilya understood the concept of space-time-force relationship and dynamics is a revelation. He postulated that only when the king finds that he is superior in power space and time shall he proceed against the enemy. â€Å"Force is important for a campaign; just as the collision of an unbaked mud-vessel with a similar vessel is destructive to both, so war with an equal king brings ruin to both†¦place (space) is important as a dog, seated in a convenient place, can drag a crocodile and a crocodile in low ground can drag a dog†¦time is critical as during the daytime the crow kills the owl and at night the owl the crow.†[41]His analysis of Force-Space-Time in the quot e shows that the correct forces need to be deployed in the correct terrain at a time of their choosing for maximum effect. The analogy of the crocodile being dragged by a dog would refer to a vastly superior force being inexorably drawn away from their base into an area of operations that is favourable to the smaller enemy (large conventional forces fighting insurgents in urban areas). All the factors listed by Kautilya need to be considered whilst planning a modern day conventional or unconventional campaign. Internal Security 22. Physical Security. The security of own kingdom consisted of physical security and also the capability to prevent treachery, revolts and rebellion.[42] The frontier post and forts (consisting of mountains, rivers, jungle and deserts) provided physical security. The details of fortifications are placed at the Appendix _______. Thus the importance given to internal security was immense. Demobilisation of troops was carried out in times of peace to save money and they were mobilised again for conquests. However the forces guarding the forts, royal property and the kings own guards were never disbanded, thus ensuring the importance of internal security. Besides Kautilya was extremely wary of revolts, rebellion and the ability of spies trying to influence the people by wrong newstreachery. 23. Control Over Army. Various means were utilised by the king to maintain control over his army including the Chiefs of Army such as paying them well, keeping them under surveillance and testing their integrity to prevent any rebellion.. Some of these measures including shrewd and ruthless ones are enumerated below:- (e) They were paid well to prevent them from being tempted by bribes by the enemy. (f) They were kept under surveillance of clandestine agents, especially to see that they did not succumb to the instigations of the enemy. (g) Their integrity was tested to weed out the cowardly. Also the (h) Tthe wings of the Army were kept under the control of more than one chief so that mutual fear and suspicion would ensure their loyalty. (i) 24. (a) Those suspected of treachery were posted to remote areas while their families were kept in the capital as hostages. Imperativeness of Security. Kautilya believed that offensive action is based on defensive power. His insistence of for internal security clearly underlined underlines the fact that before forces are committed to the main task all own vital and vulnerable targets should be secured. In fact he even advices the king to keep the treasury and army under his control. In case of a threat of revolt, Kautilya advices the king,not to remain behind in the capital and to allow his Commander to lead a campaign and to leave it to his Commander and remain behind in the capital, .in case of a threat of revolt. 24. This coupled with the fact that he attached great importance to controlling his army brings out the fact that internal security must be the sound foundation for a successful campaign. 25. Threat of Coup. Kautilya advised the king not to leave military matters entirely to others and be involved in it. He paid great importance to the training of the army and to the loyalty of the soldiers. Towards this he advocated the use of spies especially from threat of a coup. Kautilya recommended that â€Å"secret agents, prostitutes, artisans and actors as well as elders of the army should ascertain with diligence, the loyalty or disloyalty of soldiers†.[43] Types of Warfare 26. According to Kautilya, the king had two main responsibilities which included the protection of own state from external aggression and enlargement of territory by conquest[44]. He thought there was a ‘science of warfare, presumably part of a larger science of politics. [45] Kautilya has described four types of War[46] as follows:- (a) Mantrayuddha or War by Counsel. This is the exercise of diplomacy to win wars. This is to be utilised when the king is in a weaker position and engaging in battle would not be wise or beneficial. (b) Prakasayuddha or Open Warfare. This is the form of normal warfare which follows all laid down rules of fighting a battle. Open warfare, Kautilya declared, is ‘most righteous,'[47] but he was willing to use any and all kinds of warfare to achieve consolidation and expansion of the kingdom. Kautilya advised the king that â€Å"When he is superior in troops, and when he is on land suitable to himself, he should engage in an open fight. In the reverse case, (he should resort to) concealed fighting.†[48] This was quite unlike the teachings in the Indian epics which emphasised the Dharmayudha or ethical warfare. (c ) Kutayuddha or Concealed Warfare. This form of warfare includes psychological warfare and treachery in the enemys camp. Also known as Guerrilla warfare.[49] The Chinese civil war by the Peoples Liberation Army, the Vietcong in the Vietnam war, the Kosovo Liberation Army in Kosovo are examples of using mobile military tactics to defeat a stronger force. and guerrilla warfare. (d) Gudayuddha or Clandestine / Silent War. This type of war is waged by covert means to achieve the objective. It includes means to win without fighting the battle by means such as assassinating the enemy. Also called silent war, it is a kind of warfare with another kingdom in which the king and his ministers—and unknowingly, the people—all act publicly as if they were at peace with the opposing kingdom, but all the while secret agents and spies are assassinating important leaders in the other kingdom, creating divisions among key ministers and classes, and spreading propaganda and disinformation.[50] Roger Boesche has said in his book on Arthashastra that â€Å"silent war is a kind of fighting that no other thinker I know of has discussed†.[51] The assassination of Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi carried out towards furthering separatist movements are examples of this kind of warfare. In silent warfare, secrecy is paramount, and, from a passage quoted earlier, t he king can prevail only by â€Å"maintaining secrecy when striking again and again.†[52] Military Organisation 27. The military organisation is covered in great detail in Arthashastra. Maintenance of the states armies, troops and the organisational structure[53] of various components are still valid. The organisation was based on the number ten[54] and as today we follow the relationship of three. In the olden days since space was limited, it was perhaps possible to have a commander controlling ten subordinate commanders.[55] 28. Managing the Army. He further warns against calamities which adversely affect the functioning of the army which include not giving due honours, not paid sufficiently, low in morale etc. Kautilya states that armies should never be abandoned, left leaderless or totally merged into someone elses army.ItThe army should always have adequate reinforcements[56]. He further warns against calamities which adversely affect the functioning of the army. He includes many factors such as not giving due honours, not paid sufficiently, low in morale, an angry army, a dispersed one, having to fight in an unsuitable terrain or season, an army which has been encircled, obstructed or cut off from reinforcements and supplies and most importantly one without leaders. He makes an incisive observation when he states that an unhonoured army, an unpaid army an exhausted army will fight if honoured, paid and allowed to relax respectively but a dishonoured army with resentment in its heart will not do so. H e further gives importance to leadership qualities by stating that an army repulsed will fight if rallied by heroic men unlike an army abandoned by its chief. This is as true today, even in the age of C4ISR. and where troops or ships are spread across the globe. It is an accepted fact that in the absence of an inspired leader victory goes to the stronger (numerically superior) side. He also adds that even if the army faces extreme reverses like loss of capital or death of a commander it will still fight unless they are cut off from their king and leader. He stated the pre requisite for an effective leader which is true even today that he should keep in mind two fundamental elements, the mission and the people. The king is advised to guard his army against troubles created by the enemy and told to strike at the weak points of the enemys army similar to the critical vulnerabilities in JOPP. Algorithim of Victory. 29. When two kings are at war, he advises his king to sue for peace with a stronger king, accept the peace offer of a equally strong king and to destroy the weaker king.[57] He justifies going to war by the natural enemy concept[58] which states that if the conqueror does not eliminate the enemy, the enemy will eliminate him. After victory it is vitally important to consolidate on newly acquired territory so as to be able to embark on further conquests. He clarifies that a defeated army should never be harassed to the point of making it so desperate that it will return to fight with vengeance.[59] Oligarchies / Coalitions 30. A whole section is dedicated to oligarchies or confederacy. In the present world such a communion is exhibited by coalition forces. While accepting that these coalitions are strong entities he frames various means to fight and put up resistance against them. As an oligarchy is defined as a unassailable cohesive unit, sowing dissension, using deceit, treachery and playing on the differences amongst them has been suggested as measures to defeat them. In the present world, the attempt to break the coalition by Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein is an example of this tactics.[60] Strategies for Weak King 31. Kautilya has written extensively on the response of a weak king when being attacked by a stronger king. When confronted by a superior power Kautilya advices the weak king to find a way to survive to fight another day, preserving â€Å"his body, not wealth; for, what regret can there be for wealth that is impermanent?†[61] Kautilya did not however expect the weak king to give in to the conqueror without a fight and recommended various measures which included use of ‘diplomatic or concealed warfare and instigating a revolt in the enemy camp.As a desperate measure he even advocated a powerful speech offering a mixture of moral exhortation and arguments to be given to the superior king. People and Popular Support 32. Kautilya maintained that people were more important than forts and armies. As he put it, â€Å"one should only seek a fortress with men.†[62] Kautilya urged the king to be popular with the people and to endeavour to secure the welfare of his subjects. The Arthashastra has emphasised on not causing harm even to the subjects of the enemy king. In fact extra ordinary measures are recommended to win over the people of the enemy land. Their customs had to be respected and their gods had to be revered by the new king. After the war, carrying away loot was forbidden. 33. The important six fold foreign policy[63] has been left out due to dissertation restrictions. The gamut of strategies from the planning aspects, the types of war to the very crucial support of the people will be will be contextually examined for their relevance in the next chapters. CHAPTER IV RELEVANCE IN 21ST CENTURY CONVENTIONAL WARFARE 34. Realist School. In this chapter the present day conventional warfare will be examined as seen through the prism of Kautilya. Kautilya is widely known to have preached the Realist School of thought which advised rulers to maximise power through political rather than military means. He preached that the ends justified the means including the use of ruse, deceit[64], cunning and subterfuge[65]. However Kautilya has discussed conventional warfare in great detail and has also given the option of frontal attack on the enemy.[66] 35. Role and Mission. In an increasingly complex world, the missions of the armed forces are correspondingly more diverse and complex than ever before. In times of peace and tension, the armed forces are a powerful instrument of the nations foreign policy.[67] In times of crisis and conflict, they are the foremost expression of the nations will and intent. Suffice to say that the expectations of a nation from its military are diverse and wide-ranging. Therefore, modern warfare is not restricted to war alone. Rather, they encompass the military, political, economic and the diplomatic aspects. 36. Nature of War. War or conflict has two different characteristics. One, which represents progress and change, and the other, which represents constancy and permanency. On one hand, the dynamics of progress and change depend much upon a commanders imagination, innovativeness, grasp of technology and complexity. While on the other, the Arthashastra is testimony to the constant and unchanging nature of war. Studies of military history show that certain features constantly recur; that certain relations between type of action and success often remain the same; that certain circumstances and moments have time and time again, proved decisive. Past being the prologue of future, underscores the relevance and significance of studies of military history such as propagated by the Arthashastra. Joint Intelligence Preparation of Operational Environment 37. Factor of Space. The r Impact of Arthashastra on Modern Warfare Impact of Arthashastra on Modern Warfare ARTHASHASTRA AND ITS RELEVANCE IN MODERN WARFARE AND COUNTERINSURGENCY/COUNTERTERRORISM PHILOSOPHY â€Å"In the happiness of his subjects lies the kings happiness; in their welfare his welfare. He shall not consider as good only that which pleases him but treat as beneficial to him whatever pleases his subjects†¦An archer letting off an arrow may or may not kill a single man, but a wise man using his intellect can kill even reaching unto the very womb.† The Arthashastra INTRODUCTION SITUATING THE ARTHASHASTRA Historical Background 1. Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta[1] was the key advisor to and the genius behind the strategy undertaken by the king Chandra Gupta Maurya (317-293 B.C.) who stopped the advance of Alexander the Greats successors and introduced the Golden Age of India.[2] The Mauryan kingdom united and amalgamated the Indian sub-continent into a single entity for the first time, thus creating the concept of Indian nationhood. The Mauryan Empire extended from the Persian border in the West to Burma in the East covered most of peninsular India.[3] The empire lasted 150 years until about 180 BC, after which the empire dissociated[4] into several fragments. Kautilya was the chancellor to Chandra Gupta Maurya, and he composed the Arthashastra to counsel a ruler on how to defeat ones enemies and rule for the general good. The Arthashastra was very influential in ancient India up to the 12th century AD, when it faded from the public eye. The text, however, reappeared in 1904 and was publis hed in English in 1915.[5] 2. Artha[6] of Arthashastra stands for wealth, but it has a much wider significance. As enunciated by Kautilya, wealth of a nation is both the territory of the state and the inhabitants of the state. Thus economics is at the heart of Arthashastra. A healthy economy and loyal subjects can be achieved by having an adequate balance between the treasury of the state and the welfare of the people, was preached by Kautilya. This was to be achieved by maintaining law and order and adequate administrative machinery.[7] Thus the Arthashastra also contains the enforcement of laws (Dandaniti) and the details of the organisation of civil service and duties of state officials.[8] Arthashastra Overview 3. Written about 300 B.C., Kautilyas work was pitched to teach with the various intricacies of governance and politics to the king.[9] Kautilya has covered the subject in depth and offers insights into various spheres of statecraft, war and diplomacy. Kautilya wished his king to become a world conqueror[10] hence his analysis of the types of war, his doctrine of assassination, sowing discord amongst the enemy, use of spies, religion, superstition, along with the use of women to create conflicts in the enemy camp are engrossing and unputdownable.[11] 4. Books of Treatise. The Arthashastra is divided into 15 books, 150 chapters, 180 sections and 6,000 slokas.[12] The books are arranged in a manner that the initial books deal with internal administration and the later books on a states relations with its neighbours. Interestingly, there exists a very prominent mention of the ancient Navy as he has mentioned the ‘superintendent of ships in Book II. He may have foreseen the advantages of a sea borne force and a Navy.[13] 5. Science of Arthashastra. Kautilya believed that a rulers duties included the internal administration of the country, protection of the state from external aggression, maintenance of law and order within the state, and the welfare of the people. New territory had to be acquired by alliance or conquest for the prosperity of the state and also in the political environment existing then, which had many kings, anyone content with his own territory was likely to fall prey to hedgemonistic ambitions of the other. 6. Spectrum of Arthashastra. Kautilya argued that a nation could never achieve prosperity under a foreign ruler; indicating that independence was a pre-requisite for prosperity and economic progress. At the macro level, the Arthashastra covers the entire gamut of human society, the establishment and continuance of a nation state, foreign policy, war, civil law and economics. At the other end of the spectrum, the book delves into the building blocks of a society by clearly defining standardised weights[14], measures and time, values and taxes on commodities[15], metallurgical standards[16], sources of state revenue[17] and a detailed analysis of the composition of an army and forts.[18] 7. National Security. Kautilya insisted that all threats to national security must be eliminated at any cost to the state, while no enemy must be privy to the inner machinations and processes of ones own state â€Å"Like a tortoise, the king (state) shall draw in any limb of his that is exposed.†[19] Internal stability was the harbinger of economic well being. However, to maintain internal and external security, Kautilya proposed a massive network of spies and agents operating within the state and also in surrounding and enemy states. Detailed descriptions of espionage and counter-espionage activities, physical punishments and torture for internal security set this work apart from any other political treatise. 8. The Arthashastra is thus a mixture of both what we applaud today and what we consider to be reprehensible. Kautilya wrote his book about 2300 years ago when extreme forms of governance were commonplace and the primary task of the ruling monarch was primacy of his state and a policy of expansionism. While Kautilya was quite willing to reward those who served the state, he seemed to have an obsession with using the discipline of the laws to make everything in the kingdom ‘just right. In the Arthashastra, everyday life in all its multifarious activities comes in for careful regulation and adjustment, from the ‘cooking pot to the crown.[20] CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Statement of the Problem 9. The aim of this paper is to study the teachings of Arthashastra in order to determine its relevance and yield insights into military strategy and warfare with emphasis on counter insurgency and counter terrorism. Hypothesis 10. The concepts of defence and war as enunciated by Kautilya are as relevant in the 21st century as it was in the 3rd century BC. Justification for the Study 11. The Arthashastra is essentially a treatise on the art of government and specially focuses on aspects of internal administration and foreign policy. It has been translated as â€Å"Science of Politics†, â€Å"Treatise on Polity†[21] or the â€Å"Science of Political Economy†.[22] However, the best description of the word comes from Heinrich Zimmer who translates the word as â€Å"Timeless Laws of Politics, Economy, Diplomacy and War†.[23] 12. Two thousand three hundred years ago, Kautilya compiled the Arthashastra and with it he proved to be a kingmaker as he enabled the inception of the Maurya dynasty. The Arthashastra has endured the test of time and it has since withstood the test of credibility. We will be enriching ourselves if we learn and grasp even a fraction of the wisdom that Kautilya embodied. 13. Our ancient scriptures have been neglected and Western principles and teachings propounded in our literature, including military literature due to ignorance of students and insufficient importance by teachers. 14. Kautilyas treatise enraptures in many ways, the complexity of our current world. The problems that existed then, persist in a more widespread and magnified manner in the contemporary world. The principles of Military strategy followed by Kautilya are also relevant in the contemporary world. 15. Study of his military strategy will throw some light on the in-depth knowledge of warfare in ancient India and will provide important lessons for conventional and unconventional warfare in the modern world, besides enhancing understanding and pride in our country and its thinkers. The lecture by Dr Gopalji Malviya, sparked the inquisitiveness and determination to study the Arthashastra. Scope 16. The scope of this paper is restricted to the study and analysis of the aspects related to warfare as enunciated by Kautilya. The study does not include his precepts on the social, political and economical structure of an ideal state. Though Kautilya has treated foreign policy as an important part of warfare, only brief mention where necessary would be made. The famous Mandala theory[24] has hence been consciously left out. Also the actual battle fighting and formations described in detail have been omitted to maintain focus on strategy. The study will cover the relevance of Arthashastra and its importance for modern warfare, counter insurgency and counter terrorism. 17. Though a sincere effort has been made to cover the relevance, trying to expound on Kautilyas immense wisdom presents a remarkable challenge. Therefore, throughout this dissertation the work of Kautilya is quoted to speak for itself. Methods of Data Collection 18. There are a number of books written on Arthashastra. Though some books are in Sanskrit and some are literal translations, some books are available in college library on the Arthashastra notably by LN Rangarajan, R Shamashastry, MV Krishna Rao and Roger Boeshe. Some data is also available on the internet and journals. A bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the paper. Likely sources include the following:- (a) Books written by eminent authors as mentioned above. (b) Papers submitted by researchers. (c) Information available over the internet. (d) Discussions with teachers and professors of history. Dr Gopalji Malviya was gracious enough to grant some valuable time for a ‘one on one discussion. His encouragement, advice and passion for the subject made the research meaningful. Organisation of the Dissertation 19. The dissertation is organised into six chapters. Chapters one and two deal with introducing the subject and the methodology of the research. It is proposed to study the subject under the following heads:- (a) Chapter III Principles of military strategy in Arthashastra. (b) Chapter IV Relevance in 21st century conventional warfare. (c) Chapter V Relevance in fourth generation warfare. (d) Chapter VI Conclusion. CHAPTER III PRINCIPLES OF MILITARY STRATEGY IN ARTHASHASTRA 20. Kautilya has enunciated many military strategies in the Arthashastra. Most importantly he does not seem to have made much distinction between military strategy and that of statecraft. He believed that warfare is an extension and an integral part of statecraft.[25] He has covered an array of strategies over a vast canvas from the actual fighting and planning, to training and deceit. Some of these will be discussed in this chapter. Planning a Campaign 21. Kautilyas most striking doctrine is his discussion of planning a campaign -â€Å"The activity of one setting out on a campaign deals with the factors to be taken into account before the king (state) decides that it is in the states interest to commence the campaign†.[26] Kautilya brings out the various facets of planning a campaign. He enunciates eight factors which are to be critically considered for determining whether a campaign would end in success, prior to making preparations for war. The factors that he considered for a successful campaign included Power (military, intellectual and morale), place and time, revolts and the rebellion in the rear, the calculation of losses, expenses and gains and the likely dangers of treachery. Few of the factors are discussed below:- (a) Power. According to Kautilya, the most important factor is of power. Power included the military might, and the economic strength of the adversary, and also the intellectual power, and t the ability of the enemy to carry out a objective analysis and not to be swayed by emotion or opinions. He even lists out the order of the three constituents of power to be Intellectual power, Military might and Enthusiasm and morale in the decreasing order of importance. Kautilya says that though the mightier king may be endowed with better war machinery and that he can buy heroic fighters, the Power of good analysis and judgement (which include intelligence and the knowledge of politics the two eyes of the king) are superior to sheer military strength. The operational ‘fFactor of fForce as spelt out in present day warfare encompasses the tangible (personnel, weapons, mobility, fire power and logistics) and the intangible elements (leadership, morale, discipline, training, doctrine and mo tivation).)[27] The human element that is the power of good counsel and intellectual power has been given the highest importance by Kautilya, unlike modern thinkers who give more importance to the military might. The intangible human elements are difficult to quantify and hence tend to tilt the balance if not correctly assessed. Hence to compare two opponents as emphasised inemphasised in the Arthashastra ,Arthashastra, their power in all aspects needs to be compared.[28] Kautilya gives least importance to morale but adds that ‘Tthe night before the battle is to be used for preparing for battle and building up the morale[29] of troops.[30] (b) Place/Terrain[31]. The next important factor to be considered is the place andplace and the terrain.[32] Employment of infantry, horses, elephants and chariots have been given the due importance with respect to terrain[33]. He has articulated that the land being used for conflict should be unsuitable for the enemy and suitable for own operations. This terrain is a smaller manifestation of the operational ‘Factor of Space. as given in the present day references on Operational Factors. The present day conventional warfare propagates that the free movement of ones forces and the space available are crucial for success in war. An example of denial of space is the concept of Blockade. Thus the importance of space was evident to Kautilya except the new concept of cyberspace. However his postulate that on each kind of space the king should undertake such works to increase his power[34] is still relevant. (c) Time/Campaigning Season. Kautilya has laid stress on timing[35] and selection of season for an expedition. He recommends that the climate and the time or duration of a campaign (day, night, fortnight, month, season) is of great importance. His concept of space is replicated as he articulates that the time of conflict should be unsuitable for the enemy and suitable for own operations.[36] He also states the various kinds of warfare and weapons to be used in different seasons . ‘An army consisting mostly of elephants should be used in rains or when plenty of water is available, camels and horses may be used in little rain or areas with muddy water.[37] The operational factors in modern warfare give serious consideration to the factor of time. Time has further been divided into preparation time, warning time, reaction time, decision cycle time etc. Durations of the campaign and the interval between two consecutive operations should beare kept short to be maintain a high tempo. This is brought out by Kautilya when he recommends that ‘whenever the king is superior, he shall not waste any time and should proceed against the enemy whenever by doing so the enemy can be weakened or crushed. Due to new technologies the pace of thein present day warfare new technologies are enlarging the area of combat is growing and at the same time compressing the time factor is being compressed. Thus tThe critical evaluation of time, and the various weather parameters and advices such as theand terms for planningfor planning a long, medium and short war as given in the Arthashastra remain relevant even today. (d) Troop Mobilisation. He Kautilya lays down the criterias in great detail which are required for mobilising each kind of troops. like Tthe standing army, is to be chosen if the threat is great and from well trained troops, however the territorial army is to be chosen if the enemy is weak. Tthe militia or is to be mobilised if the enemy is weak and it is only a law and order problem. Ffriendly or allied forces. are to be used when the king and the ally have the same objective. Without any remorse he adds that the jungle tribes should be used when there is a gain to the king, whether they win or lose in fighting the enemy ‘Just as a Chandala stands to benefit when a wild dog fights a wild boar. Combat potential concept in the present day concepts operational art states that combat potential is converted into Combat power by mobilisation of troops and start of conflict.[38] Even Kautilya has rightly emphasised the importance of troops and thus their bearing on the factor of for ce. Kautilya prefers an army of trained Kshatriyas[39] or a large force composed of Sudras and Vaishyas[40]. He was the first Indian statesman to consider the lower castes to fight wars. (e) Other factors. The other factors he discusses in planning include the revolts and the rebellion in the rear, the calculation of losses, expenses and gains and the likely dangers of treachery. Thus Kautilya has also brought out the fact which present day planners also abide by; of not planning or initiating military action without adequate forces and in the presence of unreasonable military or political constraints. Though most planning is valid only till the first contact with the enemy, still a complex almost mathematical analysis of gains and losses was carried out to justify going to war. (f) Power Place Time relation. The relationship of power, place and time to wage a war had various interpretations during that period. However Kautilya has clearly enunciated that though each of these components is important, none is more important than the other and all are interdependent. The fact that Kautilya understood the concept of space-time-force relationship and dynamics is a revelation. He postulated that only when the king finds that he is superior in power space and time shall he proceed against the enemy. â€Å"Force is important for a campaign; just as the collision of an unbaked mud-vessel with a similar vessel is destructive to both, so war with an equal king brings ruin to both†¦place (space) is important as a dog, seated in a convenient place, can drag a crocodile and a crocodile in low ground can drag a dog†¦time is critical as during the daytime the crow kills the owl and at night the owl the crow.†[41]His analysis of Force-Space-Time in the quot e shows that the correct forces need to be deployed in the correct terrain at a time of their choosing for maximum effect. The analogy of the crocodile being dragged by a dog would refer to a vastly superior force being inexorably drawn away from their base into an area of operations that is favourable to the smaller enemy (large conventional forces fighting insurgents in urban areas). All the factors listed by Kautilya need to be considered whilst planning a modern day conventional or unconventional campaign. Internal Security 22. Physical Security. The security of own kingdom consisted of physical security and also the capability to prevent treachery, revolts and rebellion.[42] The frontier post and forts (consisting of mountains, rivers, jungle and deserts) provided physical security. The details of fortifications are placed at the Appendix _______. Thus the importance given to internal security was immense. Demobilisation of troops was carried out in times of peace to save money and they were mobilised again for conquests. However the forces guarding the forts, royal property and the kings own guards were never disbanded, thus ensuring the importance of internal security. Besides Kautilya was extremely wary of revolts, rebellion and the ability of spies trying to influence the people by wrong newstreachery. 23. Control Over Army. Various means were utilised by the king to maintain control over his army including the Chiefs of Army such as paying them well, keeping them under surveillance and testing their integrity to prevent any rebellion.. Some of these measures including shrewd and ruthless ones are enumerated below:- (e) They were paid well to prevent them from being tempted by bribes by the enemy. (f) They were kept under surveillance of clandestine agents, especially to see that they did not succumb to the instigations of the enemy. (g) Their integrity was tested to weed out the cowardly. Also the (h) Tthe wings of the Army were kept under the control of more than one chief so that mutual fear and suspicion would ensure their loyalty. (i) 24. (a) Those suspected of treachery were posted to remote areas while their families were kept in the capital as hostages. Imperativeness of Security. Kautilya believed that offensive action is based on defensive power. His insistence of for internal security clearly underlined underlines the fact that before forces are committed to the main task all own vital and vulnerable targets should be secured. In fact he even advices the king to keep the treasury and army under his control. In case of a threat of revolt, Kautilya advices the king,not to remain behind in the capital and to allow his Commander to lead a campaign and to leave it to his Commander and remain behind in the capital, .in case of a threat of revolt. 24. This coupled with the fact that he attached great importance to controlling his army brings out the fact that internal security must be the sound foundation for a successful campaign. 25. Threat of Coup. Kautilya advised the king not to leave military matters entirely to others and be involved in it. He paid great importance to the training of the army and to the loyalty of the soldiers. Towards this he advocated the use of spies especially from threat of a coup. Kautilya recommended that â€Å"secret agents, prostitutes, artisans and actors as well as elders of the army should ascertain with diligence, the loyalty or disloyalty of soldiers†.[43] Types of Warfare 26. According to Kautilya, the king had two main responsibilities which included the protection of own state from external aggression and enlargement of territory by conquest[44]. He thought there was a ‘science of warfare, presumably part of a larger science of politics. [45] Kautilya has described four types of War[46] as follows:- (a) Mantrayuddha or War by Counsel. This is the exercise of diplomacy to win wars. This is to be utilised when the king is in a weaker position and engaging in battle would not be wise or beneficial. (b) Prakasayuddha or Open Warfare. This is the form of normal warfare which follows all laid down rules of fighting a battle. Open warfare, Kautilya declared, is ‘most righteous,'[47] but he was willing to use any and all kinds of warfare to achieve consolidation and expansion of the kingdom. Kautilya advised the king that â€Å"When he is superior in troops, and when he is on land suitable to himself, he should engage in an open fight. In the reverse case, (he should resort to) concealed fighting.†[48] This was quite unlike the teachings in the Indian epics which emphasised the Dharmayudha or ethical warfare. (c ) Kutayuddha or Concealed Warfare. This form of warfare includes psychological warfare and treachery in the enemys camp. Also known as Guerrilla warfare.[49] The Chinese civil war by the Peoples Liberation Army, the Vietcong in the Vietnam war, the Kosovo Liberation Army in Kosovo are examples of using mobile military tactics to defeat a stronger force. and guerrilla warfare. (d) Gudayuddha or Clandestine / Silent War. This type of war is waged by covert means to achieve the objective. It includes means to win without fighting the battle by means such as assassinating the enemy. Also called silent war, it is a kind of warfare with another kingdom in which the king and his ministers—and unknowingly, the people—all act publicly as if they were at peace with the opposing kingdom, but all the while secret agents and spies are assassinating important leaders in the other kingdom, creating divisions among key ministers and classes, and spreading propaganda and disinformation.[50] Roger Boesche has said in his book on Arthashastra that â€Å"silent war is a kind of fighting that no other thinker I know of has discussed†.[51] The assassination of Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi carried out towards furthering separatist movements are examples of this kind of warfare. In silent warfare, secrecy is paramount, and, from a passage quoted earlier, t he king can prevail only by â€Å"maintaining secrecy when striking again and again.†[52] Military Organisation 27. The military organisation is covered in great detail in Arthashastra. Maintenance of the states armies, troops and the organisational structure[53] of various components are still valid. The organisation was based on the number ten[54] and as today we follow the relationship of three. In the olden days since space was limited, it was perhaps possible to have a commander controlling ten subordinate commanders.[55] 28. Managing the Army. He further warns against calamities which adversely affect the functioning of the army which include not giving due honours, not paid sufficiently, low in morale etc. Kautilya states that armies should never be abandoned, left leaderless or totally merged into someone elses army.ItThe army should always have adequate reinforcements[56]. He further warns against calamities which adversely affect the functioning of the army. He includes many factors such as not giving due honours, not paid sufficiently, low in morale, an angry army, a dispersed one, having to fight in an unsuitable terrain or season, an army which has been encircled, obstructed or cut off from reinforcements and supplies and most importantly one without leaders. He makes an incisive observation when he states that an unhonoured army, an unpaid army an exhausted army will fight if honoured, paid and allowed to relax respectively but a dishonoured army with resentment in its heart will not do so. H e further gives importance to leadership qualities by stating that an army repulsed will fight if rallied by heroic men unlike an army abandoned by its chief. This is as true today, even in the age of C4ISR. and where troops or ships are spread across the globe. It is an accepted fact that in the absence of an inspired leader victory goes to the stronger (numerically superior) side. He also adds that even if the army faces extreme reverses like loss of capital or death of a commander it will still fight unless they are cut off from their king and leader. He stated the pre requisite for an effective leader which is true even today that he should keep in mind two fundamental elements, the mission and the people. The king is advised to guard his army against troubles created by the enemy and told to strike at the weak points of the enemys army similar to the critical vulnerabilities in JOPP. Algorithim of Victory. 29. When two kings are at war, he advises his king to sue for peace with a stronger king, accept the peace offer of a equally strong king and to destroy the weaker king.[57] He justifies going to war by the natural enemy concept[58] which states that if the conqueror does not eliminate the enemy, the enemy will eliminate him. After victory it is vitally important to consolidate on newly acquired territory so as to be able to embark on further conquests. He clarifies that a defeated army should never be harassed to the point of making it so desperate that it will return to fight with vengeance.[59] Oligarchies / Coalitions 30. A whole section is dedicated to oligarchies or confederacy. In the present world such a communion is exhibited by coalition forces. While accepting that these coalitions are strong entities he frames various means to fight and put up resistance against them. As an oligarchy is defined as a unassailable cohesive unit, sowing dissension, using deceit, treachery and playing on the differences amongst them has been suggested as measures to defeat them. In the present world, the attempt to break the coalition by Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein is an example of this tactics.[60] Strategies for Weak King 31. Kautilya has written extensively on the response of a weak king when being attacked by a stronger king. When confronted by a superior power Kautilya advices the weak king to find a way to survive to fight another day, preserving â€Å"his body, not wealth; for, what regret can there be for wealth that is impermanent?†[61] Kautilya did not however expect the weak king to give in to the conqueror without a fight and recommended various measures which included use of ‘diplomatic or concealed warfare and instigating a revolt in the enemy camp.As a desperate measure he even advocated a powerful speech offering a mixture of moral exhortation and arguments to be given to the superior king. People and Popular Support 32. Kautilya maintained that people were more important than forts and armies. As he put it, â€Å"one should only seek a fortress with men.†[62] Kautilya urged the king to be popular with the people and to endeavour to secure the welfare of his subjects. The Arthashastra has emphasised on not causing harm even to the subjects of the enemy king. In fact extra ordinary measures are recommended to win over the people of the enemy land. Their customs had to be respected and their gods had to be revered by the new king. After the war, carrying away loot was forbidden. 33. The important six fold foreign policy[63] has been left out due to dissertation restrictions. The gamut of strategies from the planning aspects, the types of war to the very crucial support of the people will be will be contextually examined for their relevance in the next chapters. CHAPTER IV RELEVANCE IN 21ST CENTURY CONVENTIONAL WARFARE 34. Realist School. In this chapter the present day conventional warfare will be examined as seen through the prism of Kautilya. Kautilya is widely known to have preached the Realist School of thought which advised rulers to maximise power through political rather than military means. He preached that the ends justified the means including the use of ruse, deceit[64], cunning and subterfuge[65]. However Kautilya has discussed conventional warfare in great detail and has also given the option of frontal attack on the enemy.[66] 35. Role and Mission. In an increasingly complex world, the missions of the armed forces are correspondingly more diverse and complex than ever before. In times of peace and tension, the armed forces are a powerful instrument of the nations foreign policy.[67] In times of crisis and conflict, they are the foremost expression of the nations will and intent. Suffice to say that the expectations of a nation from its military are diverse and wide-ranging. Therefore, modern warfare is not restricted to war alone. Rather, they encompass the military, political, economic and the diplomatic aspects. 36. Nature of War. War or conflict has two different characteristics. One, which represents progress and change, and the other, which represents constancy and permanency. On one hand, the dynamics of progress and change depend much upon a commanders imagination, innovativeness, grasp of technology and complexity. While on the other, the Arthashastra is testimony to the constant and unchanging nature of war. Studies of military history show that certain features constantly recur; that certain relations between type of action and success often remain the same; that certain circumstances and moments have time and time again, proved decisive. Past being the prologue of future, underscores the relevance and significance of studies of military history such as propagated by the Arthashastra. Joint Intelligence Preparation of Operational Environment 37. Factor of Space. The r