Theories of Addiction Explanations for Continuing Drug Use and Relapse Essay Example for Free

Theories of Addiction Explanations for Continuing Drug Use and Relapse Essay Theories of addiction, many have been proposed and a variety of preclinical models have been constructed. several theories were utilized in this study to better understand the basis of addiction. The first theory, negative reinforcement, suggests that the continued use of the psychoactive substance is to avoid withdrawal dysphoria. The next theory subject to research during this study was positive reinforcement. The positive reinforcement theory of addiction suggests the subject continues use of the psychoactive substance simply because they enjoy it. These theories, positive reinforcement the more familiar of the preclinical models of addiction, stem from the associative learning theory. Either of these preclinical models are a perfect example of operant conditioning. Both subjects have associated their use of the psychoactive substance with consequences, reinforcing the behavior. Operant conditioning is the easiest form of associative learning and the hardest to correct once behavior is learned in this manner. There have been several studies done to understand operant conditioning. The most prominent was the operant chamber, a Skinner box. It was built in the mid sixties by B. F. Skinner and brought modern behaviorism to the forefront of psychology. Though a very controversial study much was learned in behavior control and was called the law of effect, stating that rewarding behavior is likely to recur. Another crucial model in understanding addiction is stimulus response learning. This model suggests, unlike that of associative learning where the response follows the stimulus, the stimulus itself creates a habitual response. This this occurs through classical conditioning and is a conditioned response. This conditioned response is developed through conditioned reinforcement. When the subject comes in to contact with paraphernalia, like the light in the skinner box, they know they are going to receive their primary reinforcer. This can easier be illustrated with Pavlovs studies on classical conditioning. Pavlov began to notice that dogs salivating whenever he w ould present the with a bowl of food. This is an example of an unconditioned stimulus eliciting an unconditioned response. When you introduce a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. In this case the paraphernalia, you receive the unconditioned response. Eventually, if this is repeated over time the once neutral stimulus elicits the same response as the unconditioned stimulus. The once unconditioned response is now a conditioned response and can be controlled with exposure to the conditioned stimulus. When the subject is exposed to the paraphernalia the body begins adjusting for the use of the psychoactive substance and causes the cravings associated with addiction. The next model researched in the study was incentive salience. This is a motivational attribute given by the brain to reward predicting stimuli, causing the craving for the psychoactive substance. For example, if the subjects addictive behavior is extinguished and is then exposed to an illustration once associated with the stimulus, the craving can return. Cravings can also return through spontaneous recovery. This is when the subjects addictive behavior is extinguish and, without stimuli exposure, the subjects craving for the substance returns briefly. This is believed to be cause of relapse in some subjects battling this disorder. The final model to be discussed is the inhibitory control dysfunction model. Inhibitory control consists of neural impulses that act to dampen or stop a specific activity. The area of the brain that this function occurs is in\the pre-frontal cortex. This area of the brain is in control of personality, decision making, and other functions. If damage or a dysfunction is present in this area of the brain it could alter the subjects personality and decision making abilities. Other symptoms of this is impulsiveness and altered judgment. As a result if the subject has a dysfunction in this area they are more likely to begin, continue, and possibly relapse use of a psychoactive substance. The study was comprised of seventy-three non-treatment seeking Methamphetamine u sers both men and women. They were given a survey with questions of self perceived reasons why a methamphetamine user would continue use or relapse. They found that fifty-six percent of the participants use psychoactive substances due to positive reinforcement, forty-four percent would relapse for the same. This theory was rated the highest next was inhibitory control dysfunction at twenty- seven percent, stimulus response learning at twenty-five percent, negative reinforcement at twenty- three percent, and incentive salience at nineteen percent. Most of the participants that rated positive reinforcement high also had correlations in there answers. They rated incentive salience, stimulus response learning and inhibitory control dysfunction. This suggests that other concepts of theories of addiction are needed for a better understanding of addiction. This study also shows that not all methamphetamine users are alike, treatment should be further focused in subtypes. If treatment were focused and developed in subtypes it may be more effective. By issuing the survey to non-treatment seeking methamphetamine users they were able to identify possible patient subtypes. Thus bringing the treatment to the subject instead of the disorder.

UK Institutions Promoting Health of Ethnic Minority Women Essay

This essay intends to give a critical analysis of interagency working to promote the health of ethnic minority women suffering from domestic violence. The essay starts with a definition of health and then briefly looks at varying definitions of public health and how these definitions lend credence to need for interagency working in public health. The essay then looks at the social construct of community and minority communities (BME) in England and Wales, health inequalities and the geographical spread of inequalities across areas of deprivation and the spearhead authorities with a brief discussion on the social determinants of health. This will be followed by a definition of domestic violence and how the concept of culture, especially in minority communities impacts on domestic violence and how domestic violence among ethnic minority women relates to public health. There will be a discussion on two models of health that can be used to formulate interventions which are relevant to th e needs of ethnic minority. The last part of the essay will discuss the role organisations can play to support victims of domestic violence and how the structure and culture of the organisation can influence positive outcomes and enhance better interagency working. Finally, a critical analysis of interagency working will be given suggesting how services can be improved. Public Health Health as defined by the world health organisation is â€Å"a state of complete physical, mental, and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (Bury 2005). According to the world health organization, â€Å"health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity† (WHO, 1948). The term publi... .... The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 30: 144–149. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-720X.2002.tb00381.x Rhonda, P. and Pittman, R. (2009) an introduction to community development USA: Routledge. Blaxter, M. (2004) health, Cambridge: polity press. Department of Health (2004) Tackling health inequalities: the spearhead group of Local Authorities and Primary Care Trusts Bartle, Phile WHAT IS COMMUNITY? A Sociological Perspective web publication available online at http://www.scn.org/cmp/whatcom.htm NIMHE (2003) Inside-Outside: Improving Mental Health Services for Black and Minority Ethnic Communities in England Roger Ottewill and Ann Wall (2004) Item 2 Models of health and health care available online at https://www.ihm.org.uk/documents/Education/mhsc_resource_file/diploma_managing_your_enterprise/Diploma_managing_your_enterprise_models_of_health_and_health_care

Childhood Obesity: Causes, Effects and Current Solutions

Over the past 30 years childhood obesity has been increasing at an alarming rate. With working parents, technology, and processed foods; children are eating more and are less active then ever seen in the past. Obesity is hitting youth so hard that health experts warn that this generation of children will be the first to have a shorter life expectancy than their parents (Afterschool Alliance, 2006). This paper is intended to explain current issues surrounding childhood obesity, and touch on some of the causes and effects of this epidemic. Also, touch on what some states and school districts are doing to tackle obesity at its source. These programs and other ideas that are being implemented will be touched on with the intention to bring forth the importance of this issue that has been overlooked. There are many factors that could contribute to childhood obesity, some of the most common ones are; television and technology, convenience foods, education, and habits taught at home. Alone, each one of these factors may not be something that would be the cause to obesity, but together they form a dangerous cocktail. Today's generation of children statistically do less activity then generations before; 95% of students are required to take physical education during school hours but 65% of these students do not meet recommended levels of physical activity (â€Å"The Obesity Epidemic and United States Students,† n. d. ). A contributing factor to this less physical generation could very well be television and technology. Younger generations are ever more dependent on technology; they are watching television and using computers more frequently. On average children are spending more than three hours a day watching television, playing videogames, or using a computer (â€Å"The Obesity Epidemic and United States Students,† n. d. ). Due to this dependency, children and teens are moving less, and sitting in the same position for long stretches of time. Another contributing factor to obesity is convenience foods. The culture in which we live in today seems to have an obsession with how fast things are, from cars to information, and now food. The current problem with many fast foods and ready-to-eat meals is the amount of preservatives and empty calories that they contain. Ate in moderation these foods are fine, and can satisfy the hunger of an individual, but some families consume convenience foods almost on a daily basis. More households in America have dual incomes, and after a long day of work parents tend to just â€Å"pick up† dinner rather than cooking meals. As Michelle Obamba stated, â€Å"there were plenty of times when after a long day at work, when the fridge was empty and the kids were hungry, that I just ordered a pizza because it was easier† (Nanci, n. d. ). In combination with inactivity, frequent consumption of convenience foods can result in weight gain. Other factors that have been associated with weight gain in children are their parents, and schools. We as humans tend to learn habits and mannerisms from our parents, and when parents exhibit unhealthy eating and exercise habits; their children are likely to follow in their footsteps. Genetics and behavior have been shown to contribute to weight gain; parents and children gain weight in households shown to contain more energy-dense foods, and in household where parents are not physically active (Anderson, 2006). But parents aren't the only individuals who have the finger pointed at them; schools are also under the microscope for potential catalysts in the child obesity epidemic. Some people believe that health education in our school systems is not a priority for some districts. Currently only 69% of students are required to take health education (â€Å"The Obesity Epidemic and United States Students,† n. d. ). Researchers believe that if health education is required of all students, then obesity rates may decrease. Schools are also said to offer too many alternatives to healthy lunches through vending machines. Individuals believe that by having these machines available, students are purchasing sugary drinks and unhealthy snacks, and then consuming them during class hours. As a result of increased childhood obesity rates, healthcare rates have also increased. When children are obese they have a higher risk of becoming obese adults, and higher risks of developing diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, high cholesterol, and high blood pressure. As a result to these complications, in a 30 year time span hospital costs resulting from obesity related complications have more than tripled (Afterschool Alliance, 2006). Other studies have shown that there is a relationship between students with poor academic performance and obesity. These studies have shown that male obese adolescents think they are bad students and are likely to consider dropping out (Hunt, 2008). It is believed there is a direct connection between low self esteem and academic performance, and student who are obese tend to have low self esteem. Some school districts, states, and even the federal government are beginning to recognize how out-of-control child obesity is. They have begun to offer solutions such as afterschool programs, physical education classes, healthier lunches, and even suggested as to where schools should be located. Afterschool programs have become extremely innovative in order to get children up and moving. Some of them integrate tutoring with physical education, and health education, with the intent to teach children healthy habits for life; others have local college and professional sports teams connect with schools to promote healthy living (Afterschool Alliance, 2006). Another way that schools have been taking the initiative to reduce obesity rates is by redesigning the school lunch program. The National School Lunch program offers more nutritious alternatives for lunch, although there is no guarantee that children will eat more fruits and vegetables, but they are available (Ralston, 2008). Some schools unplug the vending machines during class hours to prevent children from unhealthy snacking during classes. Even the government is beginning to step in and offer suggestions as to how to solve childhood obesity, some of their suggestions are; have schools within walking distance of residential neighborhoods, require schools to teach physical education, and discourage consumption of sugary beverages (Nanci, n. d. ). Although the childhood obesity epidemic is at its highest percentages in years, organizations are beginning to offer programs and suggestions as to how to control and reduce the issue. Although there are many causes to obesity; they are mostly excuses. It is imperative that parents take control of their children's diet and activity level, and promote healthy living. Schools also need to take responsibility in the issue and require that children take physical education at every level, and also, schools need to instate heath education classes. Solutions need to be set in place not only for health reason, but also for the academic and profession futures for today's youth. It is said that 46% of children will be overweight this year (Afterschool Alliance, 2006). This is the year to prove that statistic wrong and make an improvement in the culture of America. References Afterschool Alliance, W. (2006). Active Hours Afterschool: Childhood Obesity Prevention & Afterschool Programs. Issue Brief No. 24. Afterschool Alliance, Retrieved from ERIC database. Anderson, P. & Butcher, K. (2006). Childhood Obesity: Trends and Potential Causes. Future of Children, 16 (1), 19-45. Retrieved from ERIC database. Hunt, J. (2008). Childhood Obesity and Academic Outcomes. James B. Hunt Jr. Institute for Educational Leadership and Policy. Retrieved from ERIC database. Nanci, H. (n. d). Michelle Obama to Fight Child Obesity at Grass Roots. USA Today, Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. Ralston, K. , Newman, C. , Clauson, A. , Guthrie, J. , Buzby, J. , & Economic Research Service. (2008). The National School Lunch Program: Background, Trends, and Issues. ERS Report Summary. US Department of Agriculture, Retrieved from ERIC database. The Obesity Epidemic and United States Students. (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. cdc. gov/HealthyYouth/yrbs/pdf/yrbs07_us_obesity. pdf

Promoting a Healthy and Safety Environment in an Early...

The essay will discuss three important aspects of sleeping facilitiesï ¼Å' nutrition and hand washing for a healthy environment in early childhood education. Learning and developments of children are greatly enhanced by a healthy environment. It will also explain three policies that relate to these aspects. Strategies will also be mentioned to elaborate on the aspects and policies. Families, communities and centres should work together to provide and promote a healthy upbringing of young children. It will also include the areas needed to be improving further in the early childhood healthy environment and safety policies and practices. First, sleeping facilities are very important aspect for promoting health and well-being of children in an†¦show more content†¦Therefore all centres should abide by the policy because the health and well-being of the children must be protected. Further improvement on the policy and practice could involve children, who could participate by helping staff members put their bedding away or stored in individual locker. That helps children to learn and develop self-help and self-care skills in the process (Ministry of Education, 1996). Sometime parents, families or communities could come and visit, participate with children, also help them clean or tidy up their bedding. For example parents can read or share stories or sing lullabies to make children feel safe and their sense of belonging while they are in the centre. Secondly, good nutrition is an essential aspect that determines children’s growth and development in the early childhood education service. Healthy food should be promoted to children to prevent the risk of diabetes, tooth decay, heart attack and high blood pressure in their later life. However, to keep children safe during the service always supervise them to prevent choking risks while they eat. In addition enhancing children’s balance in their diet. Services must also provide sufficient amount of pure water and various foods choices such as variety vegetables, fruit, milk, bread, meats and an alternative. When children are thirsty, educators should be encouraging them to drink plenty of water, because water appeasesShow MoreRelatedQuality Indicators Relevant to Early Childhood Education and Care Services792 Words   |  4 Pagespromote health and safety in early childhood centres to take in to account. This essay focuses on nutrition across the early years, providin g a safe environment and identifying and responding to childhood illness and how teachers can encourage and promote these practices to the children. Auckland Regional Public Health Service (2008) states that during early childhood, children form lifelong eating habits, therefore it is important to have a focus on nutrition across the early years in order toRead MoreThe Career Field Of Early Childhood Education1746 Words   |  7 PagesAccording to Careers in Early Childhood Education, the field of early childhood education deals with teaching and education young children, commonly at a preschool level. Early childhood education appeared as a separate branch of education after several studies were conducted and told us that the time before a child goes to kindergarten are the most important for developing their learning abilities and social skills. Studies were conducted by the Department of Education, and many other governmentRead MoreAustralian Government Policies, Initiatives And Legislative Requirements1075 Words   |  5 Pagesyoung children in Early Learning contexts. Introduction 200 words l Overview of the situation and identification of key issues. In 2012, the National Quality Framework (NQF) was introduced by the Australian Government and subsequently applied to majority of children’s education and care services. The framework is used to ensure the wellbeing of children throughout their lives and to raise the productivity of the nation. The framework was introduced based on the evidence that the early years of children’sRead MoreMindful and Reflective Practice Essay1120 Words   |  5 Pagesmy knowledge and experience about my role as an early childhood educator. The resources presented helped me to learn ways to promote healthy development and well-being of all children and how to be an advocate for them. I believe this class enriched my knowledge about infant-toddler care and education to the point that I would most like to express to others its importance. One thing that I would like to share is that infant–toddler care and education is crucial for physical and cognitive developmentRead MoreLife s L ittle Treasures Preschool1399 Words   |  6 Pagesis greatest supported through our natural environments and a sociocultural philosophy of Early Childhood Education inspired by Lev Vygotsky (Berk, 2006). Our preschool’s outdoor play area provides limitless opportunities for your children to learn through play, whilst acquiring respect and an appreciation for nature and their environment, working towards and achieving all five Early Years Learning Framework (EYLF) Outcomes (Australian Department of Education, Employment and Workplace, [ADEEW] , 2009)Read MoreRole Of The Early Year s Practitioners3156 Words   |  13 PagesIt is the role of the early year’s practitioners to ensure that children get the most out of their early year’s education, for this to be possible, it is vital that they maintain a safe, secure and healthy environment for children. This is done through carrying out a variety of procedures which I am going to explain and analyse below. The first factor involved in maintaining a healthy environment is forming a good relationship between the early year’s practitioners and the child’s parents. ThisRead MoreChildhood Development And Head Start2402 Words   |  10 PagesEarly Childhood Development and Head Start The developmental years before children reach the age of kindergarten are very critical in affecting lasting cognitive and social-emotional growth. The occurrences the children have during this time period help structure their futures and have lasting effects on the contributions they make to society later in life. Many children during this time period do not experience quality cognitive and social- emotional occurrences due to poverty or other conditionsRead MoreDiscussion about the Document of National Quality Standard1865 Words   |  8 Pagesas an integral component of the learning environment in facilitating and scaffolding children’s learning. This essay will examine the National Quality Standard and discuss about how physical environment, staffing arrangements, and building positive relationships with children can directly impact on children’s learning and development in the early childhood settings. The National Quality Standard establishes a national benchmark for the quality of education and care services. It provides great opportunitiesRead MoreAboriginal Education Is A Subject That Should Be Embedded Into Curricular Activities2400 Words   |  10 PagesAboriginal education is a subject that should be embedded into curricular activities on a daily basis from the beginning of early childhood. This essay highlights the importance of Aboriginal education from an early age for both Indigenous and non-indigenous children in Australia through the discussion of three strategise. These include the use of Aboriginal perspective in the curriculum, Outcomes for Aboriginal children and cultural safety in the early childhood environment. It also evaluates theRead MoreHealth, Safety and Welfare in Ecce Setting19648 Words   |  79 PagesAim and Introduction. Health and safety in ECCE setting. Health and Safety Policies and Procedures in ECCE Setting. Well-being of children in ECCE setting. Characteristic of positive environment in ECCE setting The factors that contribute to the overall well-being of the children in ECCE setting Components of a balanced diet for children Menu sample. Indoor and Outdoor Safety. Signs and symptoms of unwell child. Crà ¨che Safety Check list Sample Example Risk Assessment